The Vocabulary of Persuasion

This is the second in a series of articles on persuasion. In the first lesson

1. we described the process of reasoning as a path made of one or more premises on which we step to a destination or conclusion and
2. we suggested that persuasion is best accomplished when person is allowed to arrive at the conclusion himself rather than having the conclusion thrust upon her by force

In this lesson we shall add additional concepts so that our framework of understanding can handle problems of persuasion. Please note that insights for the framework of understanding were obtained from The Meaning Of Meaning  by C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards. Let us develop the vocabulary that lives within persuasion's framework of understanding.

Inside the mind of a witness is "information"; outside are “facts”; and inhabiting both worlds is a hybrid creature known as the "allegation". An allegation has some noteworthy properties.

1. One property of an allegation is polarity. There are always two versions of an allegation: a positive version and a negative version. The word, ‘not’, makes a positive allegation negative.  An example of a positive allegation is "the traffic light was red."  The negative version of the allegation is "the traffic light was not red.


2. Another property of an allegation is fidelity. Fidelity is the accuracy of an allegation when compared with “the facts”.  A high fidelity allegation corresponds to “the facts”, i.e., is true. A low fidelity allegation is contrary to “the facts”, i.e., is false.  Furthermore, it is an axiom that the fidelity of a positive allegation is the opposite of the fidelity of its negative and vice versa. Simply stated both the positive version of an allegation and its negative version cannot be true at the same time. A properly working traffic light cannot be both red and not red simultaneously. Like matter and anti-matter, the truth of one destroys the truth of the other.   A comparison of a positive and a negative allegation with "the facts" tells which is true and which is false. 


3. The last noteworthy property of an allegation is specificity. An allegation is general or particular. A general allegation allows the contribution of particulars to it. A particular allegation leaves no room for a contribution. To borrow from mathematics, a general allegation is a variable and a particular allegation is a value for the variable.
   
   Q1. The traffic light was red, correct?
   A1. Yes.
   
   In Q1, the particular comes from the interrogator. Such a question is a leading question.
   
   Q1.  What color was the traffic light?
   A1. Red.
   
   Here, the interrogator makes a general allegation. The witness is offered an opportunity to contribute the particulars. The question is a variable to which a witness is asked to supply a value. A question in the form of a variable is a non leading question.

When an allegation is brought to the attention of a witness, a witness evaluates it. A witness can believe that an allegation is true; he can disbelieve it; or he can be ambivalent to both belief and disbelief. Moreover, the certainty with which a witness makes an evaluation can vary from weak to strong. The evaluation done by a witness about an allegation is considered the opinion of a witness and varies along a spectrum. At one end of the spectrum of opinions is 100% belief; uncertainty is in the middle and 100% disbelief is at the other end. As a witness approaches the ends of the spectrum, his opinion grows stronger; as he approaches the middle, his opinion grows weaker. The location of a witness on the spectrum of opinions is one of the “somethings” that a witness tells an interrogator about an allegation.

The other “something” is the reason that moves a witness to occupy a location along the spectrum of certainty. Why does a witness believe an allegation? Why does she disbelieve it? What makes her uncertain? The answer is the basis of a witness' opinion on the spectrum of certainty. Some evidence may point to belief; other evidence may point to disbelief or the evidence may be in such conflict that a witness is uncertain.

Let us summarize the vocabulary that lives within our framework of understanding of the art of persuasion:

1. the facts: that which exists outside the mind of a witness
2. information: that which exists inside the mind of a witness
3. allegation:  a hybrid creature inhabiting the mind of a witness and existing outside it as well
   1. an allegation possesses the property of polarity: It comes in both a positive and negative version
   2. an allegation possesses the property of fidelity: It corresponds with the facts or does not
   3. an allegation possesses the property of specificity: It can be general or particular.
4. the opinion on the spectrum of certainty of a witness toward an allegation.A witness can occupy a location anywhere on the spectrum of possible opinions about an allegation.
5. the basis of a witnesses opinion. The basis of a witnesses opinion drives the witness to occupy a position on the spectrum of possible opinions about an allegation

The vocabulary needed to understand the art of persuasion is few Though few, they are valuable because they are useful. They give us a common language with which to discuss persuasion.

In the next lesson we shall explore the relationship between the opinion of a witness and its basis. We shall learn that both direct and cross examination at a trial revolves around the basis of the opinion, its strength and weakness. Stay tuned.